Display design for or a museun, gallery, shop ,church, palace or Essay - 1

Display design for or a museun, gallery, shop ,church, palace or temporary exhibition - Essay Example The display remains steady and usable to date a feature that portrays the appropriateness off the display and subsequent renovations done to the facility that have sustained the position of the display thereby finding the display some relevance among the display and architectural accolades in the contemporary society as the essay below portrays. The portrayal of space comes naturally to the display of the church; the freestanding display has specific features that facilitate free movement of people, lighting, and aeration thereby facilitating its sustainability. The cathedral exemplifies effective consumption of space as it houses numerous offices of the diocese and the parish. From the large church with a naval height of twenty two meters and the numerous compartments throughout the floor that serve as offices to the dioceses, the cathedral is self-sustaining with the displayers ensuring that key features of the cathedral such as lighting, aeration and the management of the temperature remained self-sustained. The numerous compartments that extend to the heights of the towers do not obstruct the doors and windows. The church hall therefore extends to the walls all-round the display thereby perpetuating the free flow of light and air that keeps the church aerated throughout the service. Additionally, the displayers ensured that all the rooms and compartments in the cathedral remained easily accessible depending on their relevance to the main church. Display is a fundamental feature of the display that the displayers considered. The displayers ensured that the display remained elegant to date. Among the elements of display the cathedral exemplify include presentation. The freestanding cathedral enjoys glamorous ambience arising from the large and stylishly displayed laws to the strong tall towers that earns the cathedral its towering attribute in the neighborhood. As explained earlier, aeration, lighting and

Planck mission explores the history of our universe Research Paper

Planck mission explores the history of our universe - Research Paper Example With the help of NASA, Planck was able to construct a composite image from observations of the Milky Way Galaxy made at wavelengths of light longer than what we see with the naked eye. According to Charles Lawrence, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Planck is equipped enough to see not only the old light from the origin of our universe, but also gas and dust in today’s galaxy. Planck stated that it would make the data (that will be detailing all the observations made in the entire mission) available to the public on 5th February (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California para. 4). With this data, that has informed research in matters including dark matter, theories on the cosmos will be put to a test and the knowledge we have on the universe revolutionized. There are several points of interest in Planck’s mission. For any study on the origin of the universe, there are some issues that need to be addressed. Dark energy is said to have had a lot of power over the formation of the universe. Today, it is still believed to be affecting the survival of the planet probably due to acting against gravity. Researching on how the dark energy can affect the planet or the universe is imperative to understanding what effects it had during the creation of the universe. The milk way, also, is another important part of the study. Our planet is found in the milk way, and it is, therefore, crucial that proper knowledge of the region is acquired. Among some of the most striking findings is the length of time the universe was supposed to have remained in darkness. Planck’s data show that the universe may have remained in darkness during its infantry period for a hundred years or so (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California para. 5). This research, however, is inconclusive and subject to review. During this period, dark energy is a major factor of consideration. According to Planck, dark energy does exist, and it is working against gravity at an increased

Philosophy of law ( movie review ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Philosophy of law ( movie review ) - Essay Example These were the main areas that they did not want to thrive amidst the Jews in Germany. The Jewish synagogues were burnt to ashes and their children were expelled from school. Only the native religion and culture was to be upheld. The acts of the Nazis apparently relied on the philosophy of nationalism. Nationalism demands that a nation protects its interests and sovereignty with all means possible. Any intruding civilization is treated with inferiority and cruelty. In the case of â€Å"Night of Broken Glass†, nationalism had been exaggerated by its proponents. It was expansionist nationalism, marked with a radical military aggression towards the Jews. Nazism may be justified on the basis of sovereignty and prevention of culture distortion. Whereas the government and the Nazis were strongly supporting nationalism philosophy, a large faction of the natives seemed quite hesitant to act against the Jews. It may be said that these people were buying into communism; a classless form socialization that enhances unity. Communism, other than preserving unity, protects human dignity and rights, including

Changing minds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Changing minds - Essay Example something different and not fully associated with whatever it is that the person claims not to like, one would be able to get that person’s brain processes thinking. An â€Å"Integrated viable identity† is what gives people the sense that they can move on with their lives - it is a way of functioning as a member of society. In order to adhere to the â€Å"Integrated viable identity† of our readers, we must make our messages clear. We want our readers to understand what we are saying, how it applies to them, and how they can alter their integrated viable identity to having the identity as one of our readers. It is a matter of making the reader aware that their opinion and views matter. We are able to do this by addressing the topics of which our readers have the most interest in, because it appeals to their identities. The best way to change someone’s mind through our blog would be to provide the right collection of relevant data. â€Å"Representational Rediscrimination† comes down to presenting a new idea in a variety of ways which allow those who are affected to see the idea in their own way. For instance, presenting both Logical and Linguistic ideas on a large scale, so that both intelligences are addressed. As with the Freedman example in our text, we are addressing various groups, such as companies and corporations in order to make a large-scale change of minds. The problem with this is that ideas become more set and defined compared to when people were younger. Therefore it becomes more difficult to illicit a change in thought because of this present resistance. The discrimination that a reader of our blog may feel upon visiting comes from the issues that we represent. If we are presenting information that they strongly disagree with, then they will not return. The best way to fix this would be to present our information in different ways, so as not to trigger the discriminating response. The important part of the â€Å"Designated Driver† model

Discrimination of black people and white people Essay Example for Free

Discrimination of black people and white people Essay This story, Black Boy is a great book that describes how the author, Richard Wright, suffered in the South of the United States during the time when there was still a lot of discrimination throughout the country. Since the author explained many of his horrible experiences in the past, this book cannot be written in a thin book. This thick book is full of his great experiences that wanted to be read by many people in the world in order to let everybody know the disasters of racism. This racism affected Richard Write a lot and he had to adapt to the environment that he was in, although he didn’t know how he should act in front of white people in the beginning of the story. There are not many examples in the beginning of the story since Richard was a little boy, and he still didn’t know about racism. He did know that something was different between black and whites, but he wasn’t able to understand it since he was too young. He even talks to himself in Pg. 49 that â€Å"I had heard that colored people were killed and beaten, but so far it all had seemed remote. There was, of course, a vague uneasiness about it all, but I would be able to handle that when I came to it. It would be simple. If anybody tried to kill me, then I would kill them first. † After this, he realized the harshness of racism around his society when Uncle Hoskins got shot by a white man when he was at the saloon. And the reason is just because a black man was earning a lot of money and the white man became jealous. Also after this scene, there is an another example in Pg. 172 where he met his classmate, Ned Greenley who had lost his brother since the whites shot him for a specific reason. Ned said, â€Å"Th-they said he was fooling with a white prostitute there in the hotel. † Richard was shocked since he could be in those kinds of situations at any time. Richards starts to think of really going to North soon as possible now. In Chapter nine, there is a scene that is really harsh where Richard sees it, but could do nothing. This scene is at the clothing store for black people where Richard worked. The black employees were treated like slaves in the store; the white owners would push, kick, or slap the blacks. Although Richard saw this scene many times, he never got used to it. Another big thing is the time when Richard sees a black woman getting raped by two white men. This is a part from the book that describes how evil this time of period was. On Pg. 179, it says, â€Å"White people passed and looked on without expression. A white policeman watched from the corner, twirling his night stick; but he made no move. I watched out of the corner of my eyes, but I never slackened the strokes of my chamois upon the brass. After a moment or two I heard shrill screams coming from the rear room of the store; later the woman stumbled out, bleeding, crying, holding her stomach, her clothing torn. When she reached the sidewalk, the policeman met her, grabbed her, accused her of being drunk, called a patrol wagon and carted her away. † When I read this scene, it really hurt my heart. I couldn’t believe that the police didn’t do anything at all and although the policeman knew that the black woman was raped, he accused her of being drunken. Richard could have thought of saving the woman, but if he did something to the whites, he could be killed. Therefore, Richard wasn’t able to do anything. All he could do was to feel sorry for the lady. This doesn’t mean that Richard didn’t worry about the woman, it was the way how he had to act in the South. After Richard realizes the social cycle between the whites and the blacks at his work place, he sacrifices his morals to save more money. He begins to bootleg liquor to sell to white prostitutes in the hotel that he worked at. After that, he involves in a ring for scamming tickets. Then, he quickly amasses enough money to move out to the North. Although Richard was working earnest, he quits it because it was very hard to collect money if he had worked earnestly. Since Richard Write had an experience that he does not want to experience anymore, he was able to write this book, which would tell all the readers that discrimination or racism is not a good thing to do. He explained how he had to act as a black man; if he didn’t act like a black man, he might have not gotten the chance of writing this book. Richard Write had explained how blacks should act as a black, and although many horrible things were occurring around him, he wasn’t able to change it since he was just a black man. I feel that Richard really wanted to resist against the white men but if he did, he knew that he was going to be dead. Although in the beginning of the story, he said that, â€Å"If anybody tried to kill me, then I would kill them first†, as a result he wasn’t able to disobey the whites because he was scared of death. Since he was able to adapt to the society that he was in, he was able to earn money and was able to go to the North to have a better life.

The Big Bang Theory Essay Example for Free

The Big Bang Theory Essay The beginning of the universe is explained in the big bang theory. It is proved beyond doubt that our universe had a beginning and that its origin was as a singularity about 13 billion years ago. This singularity was infinitely hot, small and dense. It had undergone a series of changes, which includes expansion and cooling to become the present form of universe. This theory is called the big bang theory. According to this theory the process of cooling and expansion is still continuing. There are several evidences as well as arguments supporting this theory as well as opposing it. The main intention of the present paper is to analyze these arguments in search of its validity. History of this theory, its religious interpretations as well as the features of the universe according to this theory also will be discussed in this paper. The big bang theory was proposed by scientist and Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre and his called his theory as hypothesis of the primeval atom (Hubble, 1929). The framework for this model was based on the Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Most of the astronomers today believe in this theory mainly because of the red shift that was observed in the near by galaxies. Scientists believe that the universe is still expending because of the presence of dark energy (Big bang Theory, 2009). There are several features of the universe which support big bang theory. The abundance of light elements such as hydrogen and helium and less occurrence of the heavy elements or heavy metals in universe is actually in support of this theory. This is because it is proved beyond doubt that at such a high temperature that persisted at the time of origin of the universe, the elements of mass numbers more than 5 and their isotopes would have been unstable. This might have resulted in the formation of more light elements at that time. Presence of more matter than antimatter is another feature that supports the theory. Even now the scientists are not able to find a reason for this phenomenon. However, many scientists consider the asymmetry in the decay of some mesons as the reason for this phenomenon. Another feature of the universe is that it is composed of several galaxies and these are separated by cosmic voids. The presence of a radiation in all directions which is quite even or uniform throughout is another factor that supports the theory which explains the origin of universe from a fire ball ( Big bang theory, 2009) One of the argument against big bang theory is that universe had its origin as an explosion. However according to experts it is better to imagine universe as a balloon with an infinitely small size and continuously increasing its size so as to reach the current size. It would be difficult to imagine the universe as a balloon bursting and throwing off its contents. Another argument against this theory is that it universe e originated as a fireball in space. But according to the Einstein’s theory of relativity there could not be anything, space or time or matter or energy before the origin of universe. Thus this argument also has been proved to be baseless (Big Bang Theory An Overview, 2009). There are many arguments or evidences that support this theory. Most of the people believe that universe had an origin. Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away from us at speeds, which are directly proportional to the distance from us. This provides evidence for the expansion of the universe, which was originally very small. The discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965 provided evidence that universe was initially very very hot as it is explained according to the big bang theory. Another important evidence is the profusion of hydrogen and helium in the observable universe. This also supports the big bang origin of universe. According to the recent research by NASA and ESA, the universe had its origin from the remnants of a universe, which existed previously. This is called loop quantum gravity theory (Zyga, 2008). This theory also supports the origin of the present universe as a singularity as in big bang theory. Still the arguments regarding the models to explain the origin of universe is continuing between great scientists. But one thing that has to be remembered is that whatever might be the arguments, there would always be a philosophical criterion involved and therefore these arguments are never going to end (Gibbs, 1995). Therefore as long as no one is certain about anything that happened at that time, the arguments would continue. An important factor that has to be considered in the big bang theory is its religious interpretations. Origin of Universe is an area where science and theology places opposite views. According to Islam, Allah is the creator and Evolver of every thing in this universe. Of course the development of the universe to the present stage is something that is super natural and therefore there is nothing wrong in believing that there is a super natural force behind all these evolution and that supernatural force is God. The theologians as well as majority of people believe that it is not possible to evolve something from nothingness. Estes (2009) has put it in a different manner. According to him this explanation of origin of universe is as absurd as believing that when there was an explosion in a place all the metal pieces joined in the air to form a car. He further explains that it cannot be believed that the different parts of the oldest computer one day exploded and then joined to form the most advanced computer now. This development took place as a result of long years of research by human beings. In the same way the development of universe to the present form, required the intelligence of someone who is super natural and that is God himself. When we look at the stars, sun, moon and the galaxy as a whole, we see that they are all moving with accurate speed and timings in such a way that they do not collide each other. The earth is having the exact requirements for the life of man on it. All the requirements of the man are met through the other organisms as well as physical and chemical properties of the earth. It is very difficult to explain all these facts based on big bang theory (Estes, 2009). There is another school of thought in the Islam itself in support of the big bang theory (Huda, 2009). The idea of singularity is present in the Quran also, where it is said that heaven and earth existed as a single unit originally. According to the big bang theory, the elements, which constituted the universe, had come together, cooled down and finally formed into the present shape. This is what exactly said in Quran, the only difference is that it was Allah who gave commands to these elements to behave in the way it had behaved. Come together, willingly or unwillingly. They said: We come (together) in willing obedience' (41:11). The concept that Universe is expanding is also there in Quran. The heavens, We have built them with power. And verily, We are expanding it (51:47). The fact that the universe is continuing to get expanded has been discovered only recently and it was the answer to the long debates by Muslim scholars on the exact meaning of this verse in the Quran. An argument in Islam against the big bang theory is that in Quran it is written that the creation of the universe was completed in six days. But in Quran itself it is written that one day of Allah could be 50,000 years for man. In another place it is written as 1000 years. Thus the day could be regarded as an era with a fixed length of time. And six days could be six such eras, the length of which no body knows. Thus in this way also Quran is not contradicting the big band theory, which suggests that the origin was 13 billion years ago, and since then the formation of different organisms as well as the shape of the universe were gradual (Huda, 2009). Another aspect where Quran supports big band theory is that the process of evolution or the creation as Islam takes it, is never ending. It is clearly mentioned in Quran that Allah is continuing his creation. This is what we see everyday, as a new child or as a new plant which is quite different from both parents (Huda, 2009). Considering all these facts the Muslims of the modern world believe that big bang theory is genuine and that the universe is ever changing. The only difference is that they believe that all these are happening according to the command of Allah and that everything that happens in the universe reveals the super natural power and majesty of Allah. It is stated that the creations are to be viewed upon, as tremendous power of Allah and His name has to be glorified. Thus it could be seen that the Big Bang theory of the origin of Universe is the most widely accepted theory of cosmic origin. It is based on the Einstein’s theory of relativity. There are several features that the universe exhibits which supports this theory. Most of the arguments against this theory by different scientists have already proved to be baseless. More and more discoveries have been made in the last and present century, which supports this theory. Regarding the religious interpretation of this theory, in Islam, the origin of universe and earth and everything on it is explained in the same manner as the big bang theory. Only difference is that, in Quran it is explained to have happened as per the command of God. It is quite logical to believe that there is a super natural power that is regulating all these happenings in the way it is happening so that we could exist happily and peacefully on this earth. References Big Bang Theory An Overview (2009). [online] Available at: http://www. big-bang-theory. com/default. htm (accessed on 11th June 2009) Big Bang Theory (2009). [online] Available at: http://www. answers. com/topic/big-bang-theory (accessed on 11th June 2009) Estes, Y.. (2009). Big bang. [online] Available at: http://scienceislam. com/bigbang. php (accessed on 11th June 2009) Gibbs, W. W. (1995). Scientific American, October 1995, 273: 55. Hubble, E. (1929). A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15: 168–173. Huda (2009). Creation of the Universe Six Days or Long Periods of Time [online] Available at: http://islam. about. com/od/creation/a/creation. htm (accessed on 11th June 2009) Zyga, L. (2008). Before the Big Bang: A Twin Universe? [online] Available at: http://www. physorg. com/news126955971. html (accessed on 11th June 2009)

Ethical and legal level of counseling

Ethical and legal level of counseling 1. The concept of ethics and legal Ethics is generally defined as a philosophical discipline that is concerned with human conduced and moral decision making (Van Hoose, 1985). Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that govern relationship between individuals, such as those between counselors and clients. Morality, however, involves judgment or evaluation of action. It is associated with such words as good, bad, right, wrong ought, and should (grant, 1992). Counselors have morals, and the theories counselors employ have embedded within them moral presuppositions about human nature that explicitly and implicitly question first What is a person and second, what should a person be or become? (Christopher, 1996) For improving the ethical and legal level of counseling, first, the counselor needs to understand what the word ethical means. Before the first counseling session, the counselor should realize how important about making good professional decisions that are both ethics and legal while being helpful to his or her clients. According to the Websters New World Dictionary (1980), it means 1. having to do with ethics; or of conforming to moral standards, 2. conforming to professional standards of conduct. Notice that these two definitions are distinctly different. This first is a personal phenomenon that is, what is moral is decide most often by individuals. In contrast, the second encompasses behaviors that are considered ethical by some professional group. In the mental health profession, that group could be the American Counseling Association (ACA), or the American Psychological (APA), just to name a few. 2. The development of codes of ethics for counselors The first counseling code of ethics was developed by the American Counseling Association (ACA) (Then the American Personnel and Guidance Association, or APGA) based on the original American Psychological Association code of ethics (Allen, 1986). The initial ACA code was initiated by Donald Super and approved in 1961 (Callis Pope, 1982). It has been revised periodically since that time. The ACA also produces A Practitioners Guide to Ethical Decision Making, video conferences on resolving leading-edge ethical dilemmas (Salo Hamilton, 1996), and an Ethical Standards Casebook (Herlihy Corey, 1996). The ACAs latest ethics code is entailed a Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice. This code is one of the major signs that counseling has developed into a mature discipline because professions are characterized, among other things, by a claim to specialized knowledge and a code of ethics. In the CAC, ethics standards are arranged under topical sectional headings. They contain material similar to that found in many other ethical codes, yet they are unique to the profession of counseling. 3. Following the Guideline for Acting Ethically For improving the higher level of the ethics of counseling, the counselors should follow guideline for acting ethically. Swanson (1983) lists guidelines for assessing whither counselors act in ethically responsible ways. The first is personal and professional honest. Counselors need to operate openly with themselves and those with whom they work. Hidden agendas or unacknowledged feelings hinder relationship and place counselors on shaky ethical ground. One way to overcome personal and professional honest problems that may get in the way of acting ethically is to receive supervision (Kitchener, 1994). The second guideline is acting in the best interest of clients. This ideal is easier to discuss than achieve. At times, a counselor may impose personal values on client and ignore what they really want (Gladding Hool, 1974). At other times, a counselor may fail to recognize an emergency and too readily accept the idea that the clients best interest is served by doing nothing. The third guideline is that counselors act without malice or personal gain. Some clients are difficult to like or deal with, and it is win these individuals that counselors must be especially careful. However, counselors must be careful to avoid relationships with likable clients either on a person or professional basis. Errors in judgment are most likely to occur when the counselors self-interest becomes a part of the relationship with a client (Germaine, 1993). The final guideline is whether counselors can justify an action as the best judgment of what should be done based upon the current state of the profession (Swanson, 1983). To make such a decision, counselors must keep up with current trends by reading the professional literature; attending in-service workshops and conventions, and becoming actively involved in local, state, and national counseling activities. The ACA Ethical Standards Casebook (Herlihy Corey, 1996) contains examples in which counselors are presented with issues and case studies of questionable ethical situations and given both guidelines and questions to reflect on in deciding what an ethical response would be. Each situation involves a standard of the ethical code. As helpful as the casebook may be, in many counseling situations the proper behavior is not obvious (Gladding, 2001). For example, the question of confidentiality in balancing the individual rights of a person with AIDS and society s right to be protected from the spread of the disease in one with which some counselors struggle. Likewise, there are multiple ethical dilemmas in counseling adult survivors about what to do in a given situation, it is crucial for counselors to concern and talk over situations with colleagues, in addition to using principles, guidelines, casebooks, and professional codes of ethics. 4. Counselor Competence and Referral The ACA Code of Ethics (1995) clearly states that Counselors must practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, state and national professional credentials, and appropriate professional experience. The APA Ethical Principles (1992) makes a similar statement and adds that: Psychologists provide services, teach, or conduct research in new area or involving new techniques only after first undertaking appropriate study, training, supervision, and consultation from person who are competent in those areas or techniques. The ethical standards are quite clear regarding what a counselor should do if he is not competent to treat a certain client problem. His first and best choice is to make an appropriate referral. If there is no one to whom he can refer (which would be an exception rather than a common occurrence), then it is incumbent on he to educate himself through reading books and journal articles on the presenting problem and to seek supervision of his work with the client. The counselor has the responsibility for the welfare of the client; therefore, it is his professional duty to obtain for that client the best services possible be it from him or from a professional colleague. Clients are not subjects for your trial and error learning but deserve the best professional care possible. One of counselors responsibilities is to recognize his or her strengths and weaknesses and to offer services only in the areas of his or her strengths. Defining a counselors areas of component usually involves critical and honest self-examination. Calling this subjective component an internal perspective, Robinson and Cross caution counselors to do everything possible to gain the skills and knowledge based to the profession. Counselors need to stretch their skills continually by reading and attending to new and developing trends, through attaining postgraduate education, and through attending seminars and workshops aimed at sharpening and increasing both knowledge and skill bases. All counselors must take full responsibility for adhering to professional codes of conduct that address the concepts of proper representation of professional qualifications, for providing only those services for which they have been trained, and for seeking assistance with personal issues that are barriers to providing effective service. Regardless of the area of the area of service being discussed, counselors are the first-line judge of their professional competence. Although credentialing bodies, professional organizations, and state legislatures may set standards for practice, the counselor must be the most critical evaluator of his or her ability to provide services. This often becomes quite a challenge when ones living dependents on having clients who will pay for service. In fact, the ethical is not always the easy choice. 5. Improving Ethics Decisions Making in Counseling The making ethics decision is the crucial key for achieving a higher level of the ethics of counseling. Ethics decision making is often not easy yet is a part of being a counselor. It requires virtues such as character, integrity, and moral courage as well as knowledge (Welfel, 1998). Some counselors operate from personal ethical standards without regard to the ethical guidelines developed by professional counseling associations. They usually function well until faced with a dilemma for which there is no apparent good or best solution (Swanson, 1983). At such times, ethical issues arise and these counselors experience anxiety, doubt, hesitation, and confusion in determining their conduct. Unfortunately, when they act, their behavior may turn out to be unethical because it is not grounded in any ethical code. The researchers found five types of ethical dilemmas most prevalent among the university counselors they surveys there: a. confidentiality, b. role conflict, c. counselor competence, d. conflicts with employer or institution, and e. degree of dangerousness. The situational dilemmas that involved danger were the least difficult to resolve and those that dealt with counselor competence and confidentiality were the most difficult. The surprising finding of this study, however, was that less than over-third of the respondents indicated that they relied on published professional codes of ethics in resolving dilemmas. Instead, most used common sense, a strategy that at times may be professionally unethical and at best unwise. It is in such types of situations that need to be aware of resources for ethical decision making, especially when questions arise over controversial behaviors such as setting or collecting fees or conducting dual relationships (Gibson Pope, 1993). Ethical reasoning, the process of determining which ethical principles are involved and then prioritizing them based on the professional requirements and beliefs, is also crucial (Lanning, 1992). In making ethical decisions, counselors should take actions based on careful, reflective thought about responses they think are professionally right in particular situations (Tennyson Strom, 1992). Several ethical principles relate to the actives and ethical choices of counselors: Beneficence (doing well and preventing harm), Non malfeasance (not inflicting harm), Autonomy (respecting freedom of choice and self-determination), Justice (fairness), and Fidelity (faithfulness or honoring commandments) (Herlihy, 1996). All these principles involve conscious decision making by counselors throughout the counseling process. Of these principles, some experts identify non malfeasance as the primary ethical responsibility in the field of counseling. Non malfeasance not only involves the removal of present harm but the prevention of future harm and passive avoidance of harm. It is the basis on which counselors respond to clients who may endanger themselves or others and why they respond to colleagues unethical behavior. 5.1 Educating Counselors in Ethical Decision Making Ethical can be improving in many ways, but one of the beat is through course offering that are now required in most graduate counseling programs and available for continuing education credit. Such courses can bring about significant attitudinal changes in students and practicing professionals, impairment, and multiculturalism (Coll, 1993). Because ethical attitudinal changes are related to ethical behavioral changes, courses in ethics on any level are extremely valuable. Van Hoose (1979) conceptualizes the ethical behavior of counselors in terms of a five-stage developmental continuum of reasoning: Punishment orientation. At this stage the counselor believes external social standards are the basis for judging behavior. If clients or counselors violate a societal rule, they should be punished. Institutional orientation. Counselors who operate at this stage believe in and abide by the rules of the institutions for which they work. They do not question the rules and base their decisions on them. Societal orientation. Counselors at this stage base decisions on societal standards. If a question arises about whether the needs of society or an individual should come first, the needs of society are always given priority. Individual orientation. The individuals needs receive top priority at this stage. Counselors are aware of society needs and are concerned about the law, but they focus on what is best for the individual. Principle (conscience) orientation. In this stage concern for the individual is primary. Ethical decisions are based on internalized ethical standards, not external considerations. As Welfel and Lipsitz (1983) point out, the work of Van Hoose and Paradise is especially important because it is the first conceptual model in the literature that attempts to explain how counselors reason about ethical issues. It is heuristic (i.e., research able or open to research) and can form the basis gor empirical studies of promotion of ethical behavior. Several other models have been proposed for educating counselors in ethical decision making. Based on Gumaer and Scott (1985), for instance, offer a method for training group workers based on the ethical guidelines of the association for specialists in group work. This method uses case vignettes and Carkhuffs three-goal, model of helping: self-expectation, self-understanding, and action. Kicherner (1986) proposes an integrated model of goals and components for an ethics education curriculum based on research on the psychological processes underlying moral behavior and current thinking in applied ethics. Her curriculum includes counselors to ethical issues, improving their abilities to make ethical judgments, encourage responsible ethical actions and tolerating the ambiguity of ethical decision making (Kitchener, 1986). Her model and one proposed are process oriented and assume that counselors do not learn to make ethical decisions on their own. Pelsma and Borgers (1986) particularly emphasize the how as opposed to what of ethics that is, how to reason ethically in a constantly changing field. Other practitioner guide for making ethical decisions are a seven-step decision making model based on a synthesis of the professional literature, a nine-step ethical decision-making models follow based on critical-evaluative judgments and seven other models created between 1984 and 1998 (cottone Claus, 2000). These ethical decision-making models follow explicit steps or stages and are often used for specific areas of counseling practice. However, through empirical comparisons and continued dialogue, the effectiveness of the models may be validated. In addition to the models already mentioned the ACA Ethics Committee offers a variety of educational experience. For example, members of the committee offer learning institutes at national and regional ACA conferences. In addition, they publish articles in the ACA newsletter. Finally, to promote counseling practices, the committee through ACA publishes a type counselors guide entitled: What you should know about the ethical practice of professional counselors, which is on the ACA website as well as printed (Williams Freeman, 2002). 6. Focus on Clients Rights When clients enter a counseling relationship, they have a right to assume that you are competent. In addition, they have certain rights, known as client rights, as well as responsibilities. These rights have their foundation in the Bill of Rights, particularly the first and fourth amendment of the constitution of the United States, which are freedom of religion, speech, and the press and right of petition and freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures, respectively. The concept of confidentiality, privileged communication, and informed consent are based on the fourth amendment, which guarantees privacy. Privacy has been defined as the freedom of individuals to choose for themselves the time and the circumstances under which and the extent to which their beliefs, behaviors, and opinions are to be shared or withheld from others (Corey et al., 1988). 6.1 Improving Confidentiality and Privileged Communications The concept of privacy is the foundation for the clients legal right to privileged communication and counselors responsibility to hold counseling communications confidentiality is a professional concept. It is so important that both the APA (1992) Ethical principles and the ACA (1995) Code of Ethics each devote an entire section to confidentiality. However, a clients communications are not confidential in a court of law unless the mental health professional is legally certified or licensed in the state in which he or she practices. Most states grant the clients of state-certified or licensed mental health professionals (such as psychologists, professional counselors, and marriage and family therapists) the right of privileged communications. This means that clients, not counselors, have control over who has access to what they have said in therapy and protects them from having their communications disclosed in a court of law. In order for communication to be privileged, counselors should follow four conditions. First, the communication must originate in confidence that it will not be disclosed. Second, confidentiality must be essential to the full and satisfactory maintenance of the relationship. Third, in the opinion of the greater community, the relationship must be one that should be sedulously fostered. Finally, injury to the relationship by disclosure of the communication must be greater than the benefit gained by the correct disposal of litigation regarding the information. If as a counselor can claim these four conditions, then his clients communications are not only confidential, but they are also privileged and, therefore, are protected from being disclosed in a court of law. One must remember, however, that there is always a balance between a clientss right to privacy and societys need to know. Despite the importance given to confidentiality and privileged communication, pope, and Keith-Spiegel (1987) reported that 62 percent of psychologists in a national survey indicated that they had unintentionally violated a clients confidentiality and 21 percent had intentionally violated a clients confidentiality. These alarming statistics suggest that mental health professionals are at risk for violating this core ethical principle. Therefore, all mental health professionals need to be aware of the professional standards regarding confidentiality, the professional is guilty of breaching the confidentiality. Secretaries are considered extensions of the certified or licensed mental health professionals to which they are accountable. 6.2 Improving Informed Consent The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics is very specific with respect to what should be disclosed to clients in order for them to give informed consent: When counseling is initiated, and throughout the counseling process as necessary, counselors inform clients of the purposes, goals, techniques, procedures, limitations, potential risks and benefits of services to be performed, and other pertinent information. Counselors take steps to ensure that clients understand the implications of diagnosis, the intended use of tests and reports, fee, and billing arrangements. Clients have the right to expect confidentiality and be provided with an explanation of its limitations, including supervision and treatment team professionals; to obtain clear information about the case records; to participate in the ongoing counseling plans; and to refuse any recommended services and be advised on the consequences of such refusal. If a counselor is asked by a client to disclose to a third party information revealed in therapy, have the client sign an informed consent form before making any disclosure. The counselor may be surprised to learn that counselor are not even permitted to respond to inquiries about whether they are seeing a person in therapy even the clients name and status in counseling are confidential, unless the client has granted permission for this information to be released. One exception is when the client is paying for the services through an insurance company. This automatically grants the insurance company limited access to information regarding the client. The client needs to be made aware of the parameters of the information that will be shared with the insurance company prior to beginning therapy. Again, it is evident how important it is to have potential clients sign an informed consent form before they become clients. 6.3 Improving Clients Welfare All the preceding discussion rests on the permission rests on the premise that the counselors primary obligation is to protect the welfare of the client. The preamble to the APA (1992) Ethical Principles specifically states that it has as its primary goal the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work. A similar statement is made by ACA (1995) Code of Ethics: the primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and to promote the welfare and of clients. Dual relationships, counselors personal needs have already been discussed; attention now needs to be given to the third concern. An additional set of guidelines comes into play when a counselor is doing work or working with a couple or family. In a group setting, special issues include qualifications of the group leader, informed consent when more than the group leader will be participating in therapy, the limits to confidentiality and to privileged communication when third parties are present in therapy, and understanding how individuals will be protected and their growth nurtured in a group situation. Unlike individual counseling, clients who want to be involved into a group experience need to be screened before being accepted into a group. This screening not only ensures that the client is appropriate for the group but also protects other group members from a potentially dysfunctional group member. It is evident that client welfare, whether in individual therapy or in group work, rests squarely on the shoulders of the counselor. The counselor must be cognizant of the various aspects of the counseling relationship that can jeopardize the clients welfare and take the steps necessary to alleviate the situation. Robinson Kurpius and Gross offer several suggestions for safeguarding the welfare of each client: Check to be sure that you are working in harmony with any other mental health professional also seeing your client. Develop clear, written descriptions code of what clients may expert with respect to therapeutic regime, testing and reports, recordkeeping, billing, scheduling, and emergencies. Share your professional code of ethics with your clients, and prior to beginning therapy discuss the parameters of a therapeutic relationship. Know your own limitations, and do not hesitate to use appropriate referral sources. Be sure that the approaches and techniques used are appropriate for the client and that you have the necessary expertise for their use. Consider all other possibilities before establishing a counseling relationship that could be considered a dual relationship. Evaluate the clients ability to pay and when the payment of the usual fee would create a hardship. Either accept a reduced fee or assist the client in finding needed services at an affordable cost. Objectively evaluate client progress and the therapeutic relationship to determine if it is consistently in the best interests of the client. Improving the Ethics of Counseling in Some Specific Situations Counselors should check thoroughly the general politics and principles of an institution before accepting employment because employment in a specific setting implies that selves in institutions that misuse their services and do not act in the best interests of their clients, they must act either to change the institution through educational or persuasive means or find other employment. The potential for major ethical crises between a counselor and his or her employer exists in many school setting. School counselors are often used as tools by school administrators. When the possibility of conflict exists between a counselors loyalty to the employer and the client, the counselor should always attempt to find a resolution that protects the rights of the client; the ethical responsibility is to the client first and the school lore other setting second (Huey, 1986). One way school counselors can assure themselves of an ethically sound program is to realize that they may encounter multiple dilemmas in providing services to students, parents, and teachers. Therefore, before interacting with these different groups, school counselors should become families with the ethical standards of the American school counseling association, which outlines counselors responsibilities to the groups with whom they work (Henderson, 2003). One of the most common situations of counseling is about the family and marriage. The reason is that counselors are treating a number of individuals together as a system, and it is unlikely that all members of the system have the same goals. To overcome potential problems, Thomas (1994) has developed a dynamic, process-oriented framework for counselors to use when working with families. This model discusses six values that affect counselors, clients, and the counseling process: (a) responsibility, (b) integrity, (c) commitment, (d) freedom of choice, (e) empowerment, and (f) right grieves. Then, when a counselor faces the counseling of family or marriage, he or she should try to follow this framework. The use of computers and technology in counseling is another area of potential ethical difficulty. The possibilities exist for a breach of client information when computers are used to transmit information among professional counselors. Other ethically sensitive areas include client or counselor misuse and even the validity of data offered over computer links. In addition, the problem of cyber counseling or web counseling that is, counseling over the internet in which the counselor may be hundreds of miles away is fraught with ethical dilemmas. Thus, the national board of certified counselors has issued ethical guidelines regarding such conduct. Other counseling settings or situations with significant potential for ethical dilemmas include counseling the elderly, multicultural counseling, working in managed care, diagnosis of clients, and counseling research (Jencius Rotter, 1998). In all of these areas, counselors face new situations, some of which are not addressed by the ethical standards of the ACA. For instance, in working with older adults, counselors must make ethical decisions regarding the unique needs of the aging who have cognitive impairments, a terminal illness, or who have been victims of abuse. In order to do so, counselors may apply principle ethics to these situations that are based on a set of obligations that focus on finding socially and historically appropriate answers to the question: What shall I do? In other word, Is this action ethical? They may also employ virtue ethics, which focus on the character traits of the counselor and nonobligatory ideals to which professional aspire. Rather than solving a specific ethical question, virtue ethics are focused on the questions: Am I doing what is best for my client? Counselors are wise to integrate both forms of ethics reasoning into their deliberations if they wish to make the best decisions possible. In making ethical decisions where there are no guidelines, it is also critical for counselor to stay abreast of current issues, trends, and even legislation related to the situation they face. In the process, counselors must take care not to stereotype or otherwise be insensitive to clients with whom they are working. For instance, a primary emphasis of research ethics is, appropriately, on the protection of human subjects in research. In the area of research in particular, there are four main ethical issues that must be resolved: a. informed consent, b. coercion and deception, c. Confidentiality and privacy, and d. reporting the results. (Robinson Gross, 1986) All of these areas involve people whose lives are in the care of the researcher. Anticipation of problems and implementation of policies that produce humane and fair results are essential. 8. Improving the Legal Aspects of Counseling Counselors must follow specific legal guidelines in working with certain populations. But counselors may often have considerable trouble in situations in which the law is not clear or a conflict exists between the law and professional counseling ethics. Nevertheless, it is important that providers of mental health services be fully informed about what they can or cannot do legally. Such situations often involve the sharing of information among clients, counselors, and the court system. Sharing may be broken down into confidentiality, privacy, and privileged communication. Confidentiality is the ethical duty to fulfill a contract or promise that the information revealed during therapy will be protected from unauthorized disclosure. Confidentiality become a legal as well as an ethical concern if it is broken, whether intentionality or not. It is annually one of the most inquired about ethical and legal concerns received by the ACA Ethics Committee including dilemmas regarding right to privacy, clients right to privacy, and counselors avoiding illegal and unwarranted disclosures of confidential information (Williams Freeman, 2002). Privacy is an evolving legal concept that recognizes individuals rights to choose the time, circumstances, and extent to which they wish to share or withhold personal information. Clients who think they have been coerced into revealing information they would not normally disclose may seek legal recourse against a counselor. Privileged communication, a narrower concept, regulates privacy protection and confidentiality by protecting clients from having their confidential communications disclosed in court without their permission. It is defined as a clients legal right, guaranteed by statute, that confidences originating in a therapeutic relationship will be safeguarded (Arthur Swanson, 1993). Most states recognize and protect privileged communication in counselor-client relationships. As opposed to individuals, the legal concept of privileged communication generally does not apply in group and family counseling (Anderson, 1996). However, counselors should consider certain ethical concerns in protecting the confidentiality of group and family members. One major difficulty with any law governing client and counselor communication is that laws vary from state to state. It is essential that counselors know and communication to their cli